Ixora coccinea - Jungle flame ixora

Ixora coccinea is commonly known as jungle flame ixora...


Class:Dicotyledons

Sub-class:Gamopetalae

Series:Inferae

Order:Rubiales

Family:Rubiaceae

Distribution:

Ixora coccinea is distributed in southern india and srilanka,Madagascar and the east indies...It has become one of the most popular flowering shrubs..It is cultivated in gardens everywhere..

Description:

Ixora coccinea is a compact shrub about 1.5 metres tall...Stem is erect,branched,solid,cylindrical,green and herbaceous...Leaves are cauline and ramal,simple,opposite,sessile,stipulate,ovate,smooth,entire,acute,unicostate and has reticulate venation..Flowers appear in red,pink,ornage,white and yellow in different varieties forming a compact corymb,the corolla,with a slender tube 3 cm long and four spreading lobes...

Uses:

Ixora coccinea is a shrub grown as an ornamental plant...It is also a good hedge plant...

 

Hamelia patens

Hamelia patens is a beautiful plant..It can be placed in pots or in gardens..

Class:Dicotyledons

Sub-class:Gamopetalae

Series:Inferae

Order:Rubiales

Family:Rubiaceae

Distribution:

Hamelia patens is widely distributed in the tropical and sub-tropical regions..It is also cultivated throughout india..

Description:

Hamelia patens are handsome perpetual flowering shrub native of Brazil growing up to 2.5 metres high...Stem is reddish green and pubescent..The leaves are simple in whorls or opposite,elliptic or oblong,narrowed at both ends,hairy on surface,midrib and veins reddish beneath 5 to 10 cm long,3.8 to 6.4 cm broad..Petiole is also reddish..The inflorescence is polychasial cyme,each branch is helicoid...Flowers are orange scarlet,tubular on a terminal umbel with three to five flowers...The corolla tube is cylindrical about 2.5 cm long,five ribbed,red short pubescent five small lobes...The corolla lobes are orange in colour...

Uses:

This is a beautiful shrub with red flowers,grown in the gardens as an ornamental plant..The fruits are edible..Extract obtained from fruits of hamelia patens is given for dysentery...
 

Lawsonia inermis - Henna

Lawsonia inermis is commonly known as henna...

Class:Dicotyledons

Sub-class:Polypetalae

Series:Calyciflorae

Order:Myrtales

Family:Lythraceae

Tamil names:Marudhani,Haruthonri

Distribution:

Lawsonia inermis occurs in several parts of india,chiefly in the drier parts of the peninsula...It is usually cultivated in hedges...It is also cultivated for commerce in Punjab,Gujarat,Madhya pradesh and Rajasthan...

Description:

Lawsonia inermis is a middle sized or large,much branched shrub,sometimes tree-like branches,4-angled,usually ending in a sharp point...Leaves are opposite,2 to 3 cm long,often acute and sharp pointed..Flowers are small,white or pinkish,fragrant,in terminal large branches...Fruit is small,size of a pea,round..Seeds are many..

Uses:

The chief use of the henna plant is as pleasant orange dye for colouring palms,nails,feet,hair,beard and even tails and limbs of animals..Henna,mixed with other natural dyes is largely used as hair dye and even for textiles..The oil obtained from its flowers is used for perfumery...

Rosa chinensis - Rose

Rosa chinensis is otherwise known as Rose


Class:Dicotyledons

Sub-class:Polypetalae

Series:Calyciflorae

Order:Rosales

Family:Rosaceae

Distribution:

Rosa-chinensis is distributed in tropical abd sub-tropical region..t is also cultivated throughout India..

Description:

Rosa-chinensis is a shrub growing to 1 to 2 m tall...The leaves are pinnate,with 3 to 5 leaflets each 2.5 to 6 cm long and 1 to 3 cm broad..Flowers are large,solitary,axillary,single or double having one shade or shades or two or more colours..In the wild species,the flowers have five pink to red petals..The varieties with single flowers have a wide range of colour in white,yellow,orange,salmon,mauve,red and the size also varies from 5 to 12 cm..

Uses:

Rosa-chinensis is one of the most important flowers...It is economically valuable for its ornamental value and the perfume it yeilds...Products of rose are rose water,rose attar and gulkand...

Punica granatum - Pomegranate

Punica granatum is commonly known as Pomegranate..


Class:Dicotyledons

Sub-class:Polypetalae

Series:Calyciflorae

Order:Myrtales

Family:Lythraceae

Tamil name:Mathulai

Distribution:

Punica granatum grows wild in the himalayas from 3000 to 6000 feet...It is also cultivated throughout India..

Description:

Punica granatum is a large under shrub...It can grow up to 10 meters in height..But it is grown as a bush of 2 to 4 meter height..The bark is smooth and dark grey..Leaves are opposite and glaborous with small pellucid dots..They are shining dark green,oblong and 4 to 8 cm long..Flowers are orange red..Calyx is companulate with 5 to 7 lobes..Petals are 5 to 7 and are wrinkled..Stamens are numerous..The fruit is a berry,spherical and 5 to 12 cm in diameter..It is brownish yellow to red in colour with the persistent calyx..The pericarp is leathery...The seeds are numerous and surrounded by pink juicy pulp..

Uses:

The root and stem bark are astringent,cooling and antihelminthic..They are useful to expel tape worms and round worms..The root bark is used as a febrifuge in fevers..A decoction of the root bark is used as a motuh wash for sore and for ulcers in the vagina and rectum..The extract of the flowers is used to treat epistaxis..The fruit is sweet sour,astringent,cooling and tonic..The fruit rind is used to treat dysentery..The seeds are astringent,diuretic and cardiotonic and are also good for vomiting...

Opuntia dillenii - Opuntia

Opuntia dillenii is otherwise known as Opuntia..

Class:Dicotyledons

Sub-class:Polypetalae

Series:Calyciflorae

Order:Ficoidales

Family:Cactaceae

Tamil common name:Sapathi kalli

Distribution:

Opuntia dillenii is distributed in tropical and chiefly in drier regions of America,Mexico,East coast from Ganjam to Madras,often quite close to the sea..

Description:

Opuntia dillenii is commonly xerophytic,succulent,perennial shrub growing up to 1 m high..The stem is peculiar in appearnce usually fleshy,erect,columnar or flattened in to phylloclades,covered with areoles that appear in leaf axils and consist of long spines and hair..Spines are very sharp..Leaf spines are regarded as modified leaves of an axillary branch...They grow from rounded cushion like tubercles and together are called areoles...Areoles are often frunished with glochidia or bar bed bristles..Flowers are yellow in colour..Fruits are purple and have curved thorns...

Uses:

Opuntia dillenii is a thorny bush..It is generally grown as a hedge plant..The fruits and stem are edible...The fruits are useful in gonorrhoea...The stem is given for whooping cough..The latex is used as a purgative..The plant is an antidote in snake bite..
 

Uses of shrubs

Uses of shrubs:-
1.As live fence:

It is a common practice to make hedges with hard shrubby plants but they can be made equally well with decorative perennials or even annuals...They are also used to provide an artistic background to the garden and help in partitioning two compounds or a huge garden in to small sectors or even to hide unsightly objects namely manure pits,rubbish heaps and natural filters...Against dust hedges plants are often trimmed and clipped to various shapes..They are cheaper substitutes to masonary compound walls and as the old saying goes- 'A hedge in between keeps friends green"...They need minimum care and maintenance is easy!

2.As hedges:

Hedges have an important place in gardening and their planting..Maintenance,renovation and indeed removal pose many questions...Think of a hedge as a continuous row of closely planted trees or shrubs kept to a height of no more than 15 feet but usually around 6 feet...Taller rows,suitable for very large gardens,estates and farmland are better known as belts..Shrubby plantings of less than 18 inch height,often seen bordering pathways and incorporated in very formal garden designs are usually referred to as edging..All these forms are grown to serve one or more number of purposes..

Hedges and screens give privacy by removing and reducing the distraction of some neighbouring sights and activities and thereby create a sense of isolation or shift from the actual surroundings..Dense evergreen hedges have some useful effect in reducing noise level from nearby railways and roads...All heges produce a garden micro climate different to the growing enviornment outside the protected area..Apart from any other reason,there is an overwhelming case of planting hedges to provide shelter from wind..

Citrus aurantium - Sour orange

Citrus aurantium is otherwise known as sour orange..


Class:Dicotyledons

Sub-class:Polypetalae

Series:Disciflorae

Order:Geraniales

Family:Rutaceae

Common names:Sour orange

Tamil name:Narthai

Distribution:

Citrus aurantium is distributed in the temperate and the tropical regions of the world..It is found in all parts of india...

Description:

Citus aurantium is a shrub..Its height ranges from 10 feet to 50 feet...It is more erect and has more compact crwon than the sweet orange and also has smooth brown bark,green twigs,angular when young and flexible..It doesnot have very sharp thorns...The ever green leaves are aromatic,alternate...The broad winged petioles are much longer than those of the sweet orange...They are usually ovate with a short point at the apex,minutely toothes,dark green above,pale beneath and dotted with tiny oil glands..Flowers are pure white and scented..They are bornes singly or seen in small clusters in the leaf axils...Flowers are white,slender,strap like widely seperated petals surrounding a tuft of up to 24 yellow stamens..

Uses:

It is used to make pickle..
 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis - Shoe flower

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is commonly known as shoe flower...

Class:Dicotyledons

Sub-class:Polypetalae

Series:Thalamiflorae

Order:Malvales

Family:Malvaceae

Common name:Shoe flower

Distribution:

Hibiscus rosa sinensis is distributed in tropical and sub tropical region..Native of china,this plant is grown as an ornamental plant in gardens throughout..

Description:

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is an ornamental shrub..The stem is erect,branched,cylindrical and hairy..Leaves are alternate,simple,serrate,stipulate,unicostate reticulate..Inflorescence is solitary,axillary peduncle and jointed..Flowers are of different varieties..They also have different colours - red,pink,white and yellow..The flowers are either single whorled or multi petalled..

Uses:

Decoction made out of the root of hibuscus rosa-sinensis root is used for cough,nevereal diseases and fevers..Fresh root juice is given for gonorrhoea and powdered root for menorrhagia..Roots and other parts are used for vomiting of blood and stomach troubles...Leaves and stem bark are used for abortion..Staminal column is a diuretic and is used for kidney trouble...Flowers are also used in fever,cough,menorrhagia,Cystitis and other iriitable conditions of the urinary tract..They are made in to a paste and applied to swelling and boils..A decoction of flowers is given in bronchial catarrh..They are fried in ghee and given for menorrhagia...Buds are used in the treatment of vaginal and uterine discharges..Leaves and flowers are good for healing ulcers and for promoting hair growth and colour of hair..

Who should undergo HIV testing?

Who should undergo HIV testing?


-Any person who wants to be tested voluntarily...

-All pregnant women and women considering pregnancy..

-Those with high risk behaviours

-Gay men

-Persons with multiple sexual partners or who trade sex for money,pleasure and drugs..

-Sexual partners of people who have high risk behaviours..

-Injecting drug users and their partners..

-Recipients and donors of blood,organs and sperm...

-Persons with sexually transmitted infections..

-Hepatitis B,Hepatitis C..

-Tuberculosis infected persons..

-Persons with AIDS like illness...

-Infants born to HIV infected or high risk mothers..

WHO clinical staging of HIV or AIDS -infected adults

WHO has developed a staging system of HIV in which four clinical stages of disease are identified based on certain signs and symptoms..These stages give us an idea of the severity of disease and prognosis and facilitate planning for appropriate treatment and care..
Clinical stage I:

Asymptomatic

Persistent generalised lymphadenopathy

Clinical stage II:

Unexplained moderate weight loss

Recurrent respiratory tract infections

Herpes zoster

Angular cheilitis

Recurrent oral ulceration

Papular pruritic eruptions

Seborrhoeic dermatitis

Fungal nail infections

Clinical stage III:

Unexplained severe weight loss

Unexplained chronic diarrhoea for more than a month

Unexplained persistent fever

Persistent oral candidiasis

Oral hairy leucoplakia

Pulmonary tuberculosis

Severe bacterial infections

Acute necrotizing ulcerative stomatitis,gingivitis or periodontitis

Unexplained anemia

Clinical stage 4:

HIV wasting syndrome

Pneumocystitis pneumonia

Recurrent severe bacterial pneumonia

Chronic herpes simplex infection

Oesophageal candidiasis

Extrapulmonary tuberculosis

Kaposi's sarcoma

Cytomegalovirus infection

Central nervous system toxoplsmosis

HIV encephalopathy

Extrapulmonary cryptococcosis including meningitis

Disseminated non-tuberculous mycobacteria infection

Progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy

Chronic cryptosporidiosis

Chronic isosporiasis

Disseminated mycosis

Recurrent septicaemia

Lymphoma

Invasive cervical carcinoma

Atypical disseminated leishmaniasis

Symptomatic HIV associated nephropathy

Symptomatic HIV associated cardiomyopathy

Clinical staging system for HIV disease progression

Clinical staging system for HIV disease progression:


Primary HIV infection or acute retroviral syndrome(ARS):

When HIV first enters the body,the immune system recognises the antigen and causes flu like symptoms...During this time,HIV viral load is high and therefore infected person is highly infectious and can easily transmit virus to others during this time..ARS is symptomatic in 53% to 90% of people..Occurs 2 to 4 weeks after exposure and lasts 1 to 2 weeks..

Common symptoms:

Fever,rash,lymphadenopathy,Pharyngitis,Erythematous maculopapular with lesions on face or trunk and sometimes palms or soles...Myalgia or Arthralgia,Lethargy or malaise..

Window period:

Once body is infected it usually takes 2 to 12 weeks for it to develop HIV antibodies...During this window period the person although infected,tests negative for HIV antibodies..

Asymptomatic chronic infection:

Early immune depletion - CD4 greater than 500..Level of virus is low...HIV replication takes place mostly within lymph nodes..Generally lasts 5 years or more..May be less for patients with malnutrition or co-infection..Generalised persistent lymphadenopathy...Usually no other symptoms are seen..

Symptomatic HIV infection:

Intermediate immune depletion - CD4 between 200 - 500 infections start and persist as CD4 count decreases..ART and OL prophylaxis considered..

Advanced HIV infection or AIDS:

Advanced immune depletion - CD4 less than 200...Case definition of AIDS is having a cd4 count of less than 200..OLs develop...

Diagnostic tests for HIV

tests used to diagnose HIV:


The commonly used HIV tests are:

1.HIV rapid tests

2.HIV antibody or ELISA tests

3 tests are done before declaring whether a person if HIV positive or negative...In case of indeterminate results or if the person is in the window period,the person is advised to return for HIV testing again and is counselled to stay HIV negative..

The tests are antigen or antibody based tests..

Antigen:

Any substance that antagonises or stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies..Antigens are often foreign substances such as bacteria or viruses..

Antibody:

A substance that is produced by the immune system in response to specific antigens,thereby helping the body fight infection and foreign substances..

These are the most commonly used tests as they are economical,rapid and can be easily performed in most laboratories..

HIV antibody based tests:

-Rapid test(eg.TriDot,Immunocomb)

-ELISA test

HIV transmission - How is HIV transmitted

HIV can be transmitted through sexual contact,sharing needles,occupational exposure,infected blood,during pregnancy and chilbirth and also through breast feeding..

Body fluids considered at risk for HIV and contaminated exposure:

Contaminated blood

Semen,breast milk

Vaginal secretions

Cerebrospinal fluid

Synovial fluid

Pleural fluid

Peritonial fluid

Pericardial fluid

Amniotic fluid

Other fluids contaminated with visible blood

HIV is not transmitted through tears,sweat,urine and faeces and saliva..

HIV cannot be transmitted through kissing,hugging,swimming in the same pool,sharing utensils,sharing the same toilet,sharing the same bed or clothes and also through insect bites..

Why are women at higher risk for infection?

Large amount of mucosal surface area in the vagina..

There is pooling of semen during sexual intercourse..

Women are especially vulnerable to HIV through sexual contact when they are young because of an immature genital tract and also when they undergo menopause due to fragile vaginal tract..

Socioeconomic factors that affect HIV transmission:

Social mobility:

HIV/AIDS follows routes of commerce and with globalisation has now spread all over the world..

Gender:

Cultural practices that support multi-partner relationships for men and lack of negotiating power of women enable transmission of HIV..

Poverty:

Results in lack of access to information,care and treatment

Cultural:

Traditions,beliefs and practices affect understanding of health and disease and acceptance of conventional medical treatment..

Stigma and Denial:

Denial and silence about HIV..Stigma prevents people from getting tested..

Drug use and alcohol consumption:

Leads to impaired judgement and encourages high risk behaviour such as sharing needles and unsafe sex which contributes to the rapid spread of HIV...

People in conflict:

People who live in areas of conflict and war are often subject to violence or may get involved in unsafe practices that could result in increased spread of HIV..

HIV epidemiology and disease

HIV  epidemiology and disease

Earlier HIV was restricted to high-risk populations:sex workers,trafficked women or gay men (MSM)and injection drug users(IDU)..

HIV today is no longer restricted to any particular group...It has reached the general population which includes married women,babies and children,youth and men who have never had any high-risk behaviour..

Infected individuals can transmit HIV infection through unsafe contact(eg.unprotected sex,needle sharing) to individuals who belong to the bridge population ..Once a member of the bridge population(eg.truck drivers,clients of sex workers,migrants,) gets back to their home,they can infect their wives/partners,who in turn can pass on the infection to their babies..

We need to know what the immune system is and how it works in order to fully understand how HIV affects the body..

Immune system protects and defends the body from infections..

White blood cells(WBC's ) are the most important part of the immune system..

WBC's fight against bacteria,fungi and viruses that enter the human body and destry them...

CD4 cells:Also known as helper T cell or CD4 lymphocyte..It is a type of WBC or white blood cell that carries the CD4 receptor on its surface and fights infections..It signals other cells in the body's immune system to perform their special functions and coordinates immune response...The number of CD4 cells in a sample of blood is an indicator of the health of the immune system...HIV infects and kills CD4 cells,leading to a weakened immune system..

What is HIV?

H-Human

I-Immunodeficiency

V-Virus

HIV is the acronym for human immunodeficiency virus..A person infected with HIV is known as an HIV positive person..

HIV is a retro virus..The genetic material of retro viruses is carried in the form of RNA rather than DNA..

HIV cannot be destroyed by the body..An infected person carries HIV for life..

What is AIDS?

A-Acquired(not inherited -contracted by direct contact with body fluids that have high concentrations of HIV either from high rish behaviour or exposure)

I-Immune(weakens the immune system)

D-Deficiency(of certain white blood cells - T4 lymphocytes in the immune system)

S-Syndrome(a group of symptoms or illnesses as a result of HIV infection)

How HIV works in the body?

HIV uses the CD4 cell like a factory to reproduce more of itself..The HIV attaches itself to the host CD4 cell..Reverse transcriptase makes DNA from the virus's RNA..Integration in to host cell's nucleus takes place..Reproduction of viral components takes place...There is an assembly of new HIV viruses...Finally they are released..

How HIV causes AIDS?

Viral replication leads to decreased CD4 cell..

As viral replication continues there is further impairment of the immune system reducing the body's capacity to fight infections..

The individual becomes more susceptible to opportunistic infections..

AIDS is characterised by the presence of opportunistic infections..

The difference between HIV and AIDS is that HIV is a virus and AIDS is a disease..

AIDS is a deficiencyin the bodys defence mechanism or immune system..

AIDS is acquired and not hereditary..

HIV infection leads to AIDS depending on the body's defence mechanism..