Interactions of ionizing radiation with tissues - Exposure to radiation

The interaction of ionizing radiation with human body from external sources or from internal contamination by radioactive substances leads to biological effects,which may later show up as clinic symptoms...The nature and severity of these symptoms and the rate at which they appear depends on the amount of radiation absorbed and the rate at which it receives...Radiation injuries can be stochastic or non-stochastic..


Interactions of ionizing radiation with tissues:

When ionizing radiation interacts with living tissues it is the absorption of energy in the tissues causes damages...If radiation passed through the tissue without absorption there would be no biological effect and no image would be produced..When radiation is absorbed,chemical changes are produced followed by molecular damage within fractions of second or much longer time span of hours to decades to manifest biological damage..

There are many examples of radiation-induced damage to the skin and hands suffered by the early radiologists,Leukaemias in patients treated with radiation for ankylosing spondilitis and radiation accidents in various parts of the world..

Chain of events following exposure to ionizing radiation:

Exposure leads to ionization which causes chemical changes(free radicals) which again leads to molecular changes in the DNA,RNA and enzymes which further causes subcellular damages in the menbranes,nuclei and chromosomes which later causes daage at the cellular level which leads to cell death and cellular transformation..

During radiation exposure it is the ionization process that causes the majority of immediate chemical changes in tissue..The critical molecules for radiation damage are Proteins(enzymes) and nucleic acid(DNA)..The damage occurs in two basic ways,Direct and Indirect..Direct by producing lesions in the soulte moleculese.g. by rupturing a covalent bond....Indirect by an indirect action between the solute molecules and free radicals produced during the ionization of water..

Indirect damage occurs more commonly because living tissue is about 70 to 90% water...If a pure water molecule is irradiated,it emits free electrons and produces a positively charged ion and negatively charged electrons..

The hydroxyl free radical OH is highly reactive and Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful oxidising agent which produces chemical modifications in solute organic molecules...These interactions occurs in microseconds and will lead to many biological harmful products and produces damaging chain reactions in tissue..The variety of levels of chain events is at molecular levels,macromolecules such as DNA,RNA and enzymes are damaged..At subcellular levels are cell membranes,nuclei,chromosomes and at cellular levels are cell divisions delayed,cell death or transformation to a malignant state..Cell repair occurs if there is sufficient time for recovery between irradiation events..

Ionising radiation is harmful and injurious to health but it's benefits outweigh its risk..

Coronary Artery Disease

Coronary artery disease occurs when a waxy substance called plaque builds up on the inside of the arteries,in a process known as Atherosclerosis..These plaque deposits can cause a narrowing of the inner lumen of the arteries,which decreases the supply of blood and oxygen...When atherosclerosis occurs in the arteries of the heart,it is called as Coronary Artery disease(CAD)
The reduced blood flow to the heart can lead to chest pain called Angina and numbness in the arms and shoulders...In some cases it can cause a heart attack or myocardial infarction..

Risk factors:

High blood pressure

Diabetes

Smoking

Family history of CAD

High cholesterol

Obesity

Lack of physical activity

Diagnosis:

Current symptoms

Family history

Chest X-ray/Blood tests

Stress test

Previous medical history

Risk factorsBaseline electrocardiogram(ECG)

Coronary angiogram

Angiogram:

It is performed in a cath lab...Small hallow tube called sheath will be inserted in to the artery either in the arm or leg after numbing the area with local anesthetics...Through this tube,thin flexible shafts caled catheters will be inserted in to the arteries till the origin of the coronaries with the help of guide wires...When placed in the Ostium of the coronaries,a special dye will be injected through the catheters in to the blood stream and monitored in the X-ray monitor..Narrowing and blockages of the arteries will be detected and notified for the correct treatment plan by the doctors..

Treatment option for coronary artery disease:

A treatment plan will be depending on the symptoms,test results and medical history..The plan may include medication to relieve the chest pain and expand the coronaries thus increasing the blood flow to the heart...

However,because medicine alone cannot clear the blocked arteries,other treatment like surgery,angioplasty or Stenting may be needed...

Balloon angioplasty:

Balloon angioplasty is performed in the catheterization laboratory like coronary angiogram..A local anesthetic will be used to numb the puncture site and a catheter with a small balloon on its tip will be inserted through an artery and threaded through the blocked artery...Then the balloon is inflated to flatten the plaque against the wall of the artery..This increases blood flow through the artery..

Stenting:

A stent is a tiny,expandable mesh like tube that acts as a scaffold inside the artery and helps keep the artery open after balloon angioplasty...A specially designed balloon catheter is used to deliver the stent to the blocked area of the artery..The balloon is inflated to expand the stent..As the stent expands,it helps flatten the plaque against the artery wall,increasing the blood flow..Once the stent is fully exapnded,the balloon is deflated and removed from the body..The stent stays permanently in the arteries..

However,a condition called restenosis occurs in some patients who receive conventional stents..This is the renarrowing of the artery where the stent was placed due to the overgrowth of the normal tissue within the stent during the healing process..

Drug eluting stents:

To help prevent restenosis,drug eluting stents have been developed..These stents provide the same structural support as conventional(uncoated) stents but they also have a drug applied to them..The drug is designed to release slowly at the right dosage over time,helping to prevent restenosis by limiting the overgrowth of normal tissue within the stent...Drug eluting stents may not be suitable for all patients with coronary artery disease....

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CT guided biopsy - Computed Tomography guided biopsy

A CT guided biopsy is a procedure by which the physician uses a very thin needle to withdraw a tissue or fluid specimen from an organ or suspected tumour mass..The needle is guided while being viewed by the physician on a computed tomography(CT) scan...

Purpose:

A definite diagnosis of cancer is almost always based on the histological examination of cell or tissue samples...The procedure used to obtain a specimen for this testing is called a biopsy...Biopsies can be performed by surgical removal of the specimen if the suspicious area is located near the surface of the body or during surgery...If the suspected tumor is located deep inside the body and cannot be felt by the physician,he may decide to perform a CT-guided biopsy..The main advantage of a Ct-guided biopsy is that it doesnot require an incision but the disadvantage is that in some cases,the needle may not be able to remove enough tissue for analysis...

Technique:

The technique will vary depending on the site of specimen collection and the patient's general condition...In most procedures,the patient lies on the CT table on his back or on either side,depending on where the needle is to be inserted...Some patients may require intravenous injection of pain killers...A CT scan is first performed to locate the best site for needle insertion..The skin is then disinfected and anesthetised with its underlying tissue.The needle is inserted through the skin in to the body...Another CT scan is performed to confirm that the tip of the needle lies at the desired location..When the tip of the needle is seen to be in the proper position,the biopsy specimen is withdrawn through the needle...

Risks:

CT guided biopsy is a fairly safe procedure...The risks are certainly less than the risks involved with the alternative method,surgical biopsy..In any case,reovering from CT -guided biopsy takes considerably less time than it would if the biopsy were surgically performed...

Results:

A preliminary evaluation of the CT -guided biopsy specimen is often performed by the physician..If enough tissue has been obtained for the required tests,the procedure is terminated and the specimen is sent to the histology lab for analysis..Abnormal results indicate that a malignancy or other abnormality is present..

Conclusion:

Wide ranges of CT -guided biopsies have been regularly conducted around the globe which have now totally replaced open biopsies..This shows the success rate of this procedure..

Foods that fight Alzheimer's disease

Foods that fight Alzheimer's disease:


Fish especially fish like salmon,mackerel,herring and sardines are rich in mega-3 fatty acids and should be eaten atleast 3 times per week..

Eggs are a good dietary source of cholinea component of lecithin..They are also a good source of iron,vitamin B12 and other B vitamins,an excellent source of protein and very easy to eat and digest...

Wheat germ and whole grains are high in lecithin and choline,carbohydrate,vitamin E,B vitamins and numerous vitamins that help forestall Alzheimer's disease..Whole grain breads are a popular and readily available item to add to anyone's diet...

Soy products are rich in choline and provide protein,carbohydrate,calcium and fibre..They are a good source of folic acid,also known as folate and are known to lower blood levels of homocysteine..
 
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Control blood pressure with the DASH diet

How to control blood pressure with the DASH diet :


DASH means Dietary approaches to stop hypertension...It has been found that blood pressure levels could fall significantly with an eating plan low in total fat,saturated fat ad cholestrol and rich in fruits,vegetables and low-fat dairy products...

The DASH diet provids foods that are high in fiber,calcium,magnesium and potassium,all of which have been associated with lower blood pressure...It is also low in saturated fat...The diet calls for eating 8 to 10 servings of fruits and vegetables and 2 to 3 cups of low-fat dairy foods daily...Here are a few tips ...

Grains and grain products:7 to 8 servings daily

Low-fat or non-fat dairy foods:2 to 3 servings daily

Fruits and vegetables:4 to 5 servings of each daily

Meats,poultry and fish:2 or fewer servings daily

Nuts,seeds or legumes:4 to 5 servings per week

Fats:2 to 3 servings daily;avoid saturated fat

Sweets:5 per week

Sodium found in table salt can also raise the blood pressure by causing the body to retain water thereby increasing blood volume and thus blood pressure..Sodium also causes small blood vessels to constrict...So limiting salt intake also helps reduce one's blood pressure...

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Beauty tips...

Bring out the summer colours!!Paint your toe nails in a bright,bold colour and flaunt them in your open-toed sandals!!

Get summer ready skin!Exfoliate the skin on your back,arms,shoulders and legs and get rid of the dead skin!!

Pay special attention to your elbow area,it receives maximum friction and is prone to darkening and hardening of skin...Exfoliate and moisturise regularly...

Ban elastic rubber bands!It's safest to use hair scrunchies that are covered with cloth...They look trendy and also dont cause hair breakage due to pulling...

Prone to break outs?Get skin products with non-comedogenic ingredients..These are least likely to block pores and cause spots,reducing chances of a break out...

If long hair is your latest fancy,then you need to trim your hair every 3 months atleast!!

Remember to keep an oil free moisturiser  for using as a base for your foundation...The oils from a moisturiser could otherwise cause an uneven finish...

To remove eye make up,soak cotton in warm water,squeeze out excess water and dab a little makeup remover...Place on the eyelid and massage in a circular motion...

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Feeding a baby wth cleft lip or palate

The cleft may vary from involvement of the soft palate only,to a complete cleft of the soft and hard palates,the alveolar process of the maxilla and the lip...The mildest form is a bifid uvula..An associated cleft lip is primarily a cosmetic problem but if it is associated with cleft palate,it can cause feeding difficulties...

In such cases you must provide emotional support and reassurance to the mother..

Explain to the mother that the most important thing to do at this time is to feed the baby to ensure adequate growth until surgery can be performed..

If the baby has a cleft lip but the palate is intact ,allow the baby to attempt to breast feed...

If the baby breast feeds successfully and there are no other problems,then the baby is usually discharged and thereafter follow up of growth and weight gain are performed...

If the baby cannot breastfeed well because of the cleft,give expressed breast milk  using an alternative feeding method...

If the baby has a cleft palate,give expressed milk using an alternative feeding method...

Once the baby is feeding well and gaining weight,baby is referred to surgery for repair of cleft...
 
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Caring for a baby in an incubator - How to use an incubator

Determine the appropriate temperature for the incubator based on the baby's weight and age..

Warm the incubator to the desired temperature before placing the baby inside..

If the incubator is single walled increase the incubator temperature by 1 degree C for every 7 degree C difference in temperature between the room and the incubator...

Clean the mattress and cover it with a clean linen sheet...

Make sure that the incubator's water reservoir is empty..Dangerous bacteria may grow in the water and infect the baby..Leaving the reservoir empty will not affect the function of the incubator..

Make sure that the baby's head is covered and the baby is clothed or covered unless it is necessary for the baby to be naked or partially undressed for observation or any procedure...

Place only one baby in an incubator...

Close the hood as quickly as possible after placing the baby inside and keep the portholes of the incubator closed at all times to keep the incubator warm...

Check the temperature of the incubator every hour for the first eight hours and then every three hours...

If the temperature of the incubator doesnot match the set temperature,it means the incubator may not be functioning properly...Adjust the temperature setting until the desired temperature is reached inside the incubator...

Measure the baby's temperature also every hour for the first eight hours and then every three hours thereafter...

Move the baby to be with the mother as soon as the baby no longer requires special care and procedures or treatment..
 
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Classification of burns

Burns are classified according to the depth of skin damage:

There are three depths..

1.Superficial

2.Partial thickness

3.Full thickness

A casualty may suffer from one or more than one of the above at the same time..

1.Superficial burns involves only the outermost layer of the skin,the epidermis...This type of injury usually heals well if first aid is given promptly and if blisters do not form..Sunburn is one of the most common types of superficial burn..Domestic minor accidents or incidents also may cause such superficial burns..The superficial burns are characterised by redness,swelling and tenderness..

2.Partial thickness burns destroy the epidermis and are very painful...The skin becomes red and blistered...These burns usually heal well but they can be serious if large areas of the body are affected...If they cover more than 20 % of the body it is said to be fatal...The skin becomes raw and red...Blisters form over the skin due to fluid released from the damaged tissues..

3.In full thickness burns,pain sensation is usually lost which can be easily misunderstood by the affected person thinking that the injury is mild and not severe..The skin may look waxy,pale or charred..These kind of burns need immediate medical attention...All the layers of the skin are affected and there may be also damage to the nerves,fat tissue,muscles and blood vessels...

How does blood blot ?

how does blood clot?


When a blood vessel is severed or damaged ,it constricts in order to prevent xcessive amounts of blood from escaping ..Injured tissue cells at the site of the wound,together with specialised blood vessels called platelets,then trigger a series of chemical reactions that result in the formation of a substance called fibrin...Strands or filaments of fibrin come together to form a mesh which traps blood cells to make a blood clot..The clot releases a pale-coloured fluid known as serum which contains antibodies and specialised cells..This serum begins the process of repairing the damaged area..At first the blood clot is a jelly like mass..Later it dries in to a crust that seals and protects the site of the wound until the healing process is complete...

Platelet activation:

In this first stage of clotting,cells in the blood called platelets come in to contact with the damaged vessel wall...They become sticky and start to clump at the site of the injury...

Release of chemicals:

The clumped platelets and the damaged tissue release chemicals that trigger a complex chain of reactions...This process creates substances that enable clotting...

Fibrin formation:

Threads of fibrin form a mesh at the site of the injury...The fibrin mesh traps more cells at the site to form a jelly like clot usually within about 10 minutes...

Gentle DTP vaccine for babies

DTP vaccines are also known as Triple...The DTP vaccine protects children against three life threatening diseases-Diphtheria(Galghotu),Tetanus(Dhanush Tankar) and Pertussis(Kalikhansi).There are two types of DTP vaccines...They are
1.Whole-cell DTP vaccines-These are many decades old and come with a range of side effects..

2.Gentle DTP vaccines-These are the latest and technologically advanced vaccine..They are said to be more effective and come with lesser side effects..

Side effects associated with whole-cell DTP vaccines are pain,redness,swelling,fever,persistent crying and irritability in almost 50% of the babies..These side effects can last for 3 to 5 days post vaccination..

The span of 3 to 5 days post vaccination with whole-cell DTP vaccines can be a traumatic experience for you and your baby...The sdie effects can cause your baby a great deal of discomfort by keeping him or her awake all night...Baby also wont be able to move the vaccinated limb due to pain..The incessant crying adds to the feeling of helplessness...

So when it is time for a DTP vaccine,go in for gentle DTP vaccine and not whole-cell DTP vaccine..
 
Related articles:
 
Immunisation schedule for kids
 
Dealing with chicken pox

Use carpets to colour your home - Carpets for your home

Carpets can be used to colour your home.. You walk on your carpet everyday...You stretch on it...Your kids roll over it,play on it..Spill eatables and toys and other stuff on it..Simple carpets makes your home complete..It changes the whole look of your home..Carpets are loved by everyone especially those cushioned ones,soft and fluffy ones..Vibrant coloured cute carpets spread around in the rooms of your house will add beauty to the house..Always go n for a carpet that also respects the setting of the room.And the best way is you can strew the floors with bold area rugs for a boost of colour..The look,feel and tone of new carpeting can change the whole personality of your home..

Once you decide to get yourself a carpet let common sense be your guide...Select a carpet that is made for the traffic and activity level of your home,set it on padding that works,keep it clean and soil-free and you will have a carpet that will enhance your home for years to come..Warm colours bring light in to a room,while cool greens and blues are very calming..Lighter colours tend to make rooms appear more spacious while darker colours provide a cozy feeling...

Do not be afraid of choosing light colours...A new stain and technology makes today's lighter colour carpet much easier to clean than in the past..Medium and darker colours,patterns and textures help to disguise even soil in your high traffic areas...Carpets come in a vast array of colours and styles,textures and fibres..And there are many different qualities of carpets to choose from...Here are a few tips:

-Carpet is made up of fibers,mesh backing,an attached cushion and the latex adhesive to hold the pile of twisted fibers in place..

-Better carpets have better latex adhesive...As for fibers,they may be nylon,olefin,polyester,acrylic or wool..

-When purchasing carpeting,you should buy the best quality carpet you can afford,coupled with the highest quality padding..Padding provides softness and support,cuts down on noise and insulates the floor...

-If you have a high traffic area,then nylon would be a good choice due to it's durability..Nylon is also a stain resistant and repels mildew...Polyester is also an excellent high traffic area carpet that is used commonly...It is also easy to clean and resists water-based stains..

-The type of fibre and quality and durability of your carpet is very important...

-Make it a life time investment...Invest well and wisely...

-Check out the care and instructions for cleaning before you buy...

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Keep your fridge clean - How to clean your fridge

You can clean your fridge by these tips...Fridge is an important component in maintaining the health and hygeine of a family...And every so often a fridge needs to be cleaned inside..The shelves have to be washed down from milk spills and food tossed out,if they have outlived the shelf life...I read somwwhere to keep your fridge running properly and your family safe from foodborne diseases or illnesses,a thorough fridge cleaning is recommened atleast every now and then...Once a year and every few months cleaning wont do..Make sure you clean atleast once a month thoroughly..Improperly stored foods,leftovers,spills and neglect can turn your fridge in to a nightmare..Mold,mildew,bacteria commonly invade fridges through simple use...

We need the fridge to be clean and organised to protect the food we eat and also to protect ourselves from getting sick..Before you could start cleaning,take out all the food and check every item to see what is out of date and must be thrown out..Then remove all the detachable parts of the fridge and place them in the kitchen sink for washing..This will include the drawers,the racks and any compartments found in the door of the fridge which are removable..Wash these in hot soapy water...This will remove any food debris and other stains...While these parts are dripping dry,you can set about washing out the inside of the fridge..Once it is clean,the easy way to maintain that is to empty and clean just one or two shelves or drawers at a time..The entire fridge is never spotless all at once but it can stay resonably clean without being an all-day project...Nobody likes to eat from a dirty place..Make sure you fridge is always clean and doesnot smell!!

Here are a few tips to keep your fridge clean:

-For a speed defrost,after emptying contents of freezer and switching temperature dial to defrost,use a hair dryer to shift ice blocks..

-Throw out aged ,moldy or inedible food,bagging securely...Toss anyting you dont use regularly..

-To keep the fridge fee of smells,use bicarbonate of soda..Fill a small jar with perforated lid with the soda and cover with some cotton material and gauze..

-Wipe your fridge inside and outside with a cloth and vinegar and water or baking soda and water solution..

-Soapy water can also be used for cleaning..

-Organise to make things easier to find...Put milk,juices and other drinks on one shelf and your dressings,sauces and similar items in one place..

-Try to clean your fridge atleast once a month without fail..

-Never wash a cold glass shelf with hot water..The differnec in the temperatures will shatter the glass..Instead use cold water or remove the shelf and keep it out to brind down the temperature before cleaning it...

-Maintain the right temperature for your fridge to avoid spoilage of food and growth of bacteria..

-Use a fresh clean rag or sponge to rinse the entire fridge and all the areas that have been cleaned and scrubbed..Dry later with paper towels or air dry thoroughly..

-When completely cleaned and dried,aarnage things back on the fridge shelves throwing awayd expired items..
 
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Meningitis

Meningitis is a disorder in which the linings that surround the brain and the spinal cord become inflammed..These linings are called as meninges..It can be caused by several different types of bacteria or viruses and can occur at any age..It is a potentially serious illness and the affected person may deteriorate very fast..Prompt treatment after hospitalisation is important..Antibiotics are given immediately..Meningitis can cause permanent disability such as deafness or brain damage if not attented to immediately..

Symptoms and signs of meningitis:

1.High temperature or fever

2.Vomiting and loss of appetite

3.Severe headache

4.Neck stiffness

5.Joint or muscle pains

6.Drowsiness

7.Confusion or disorientation

8.Dislike of bright light

9.Seizures

10.Skin rash or small red/purple pin prick spots that resemble frsh bruising

11.In children there will be slight tenderness and sswelling of the soft parts of the skull..

Testing for meningitis:

Press a glass over a skin rash...If the rash does not fade under the glass,suspect meningitis..

Seek medical help immediately if you suspect meningitis..

The skeleton,the spine and the skull

The body is built on a framework of bones called the skeleton...This structure supports the muscles,blood vessels and nerves of the body..Many bones of the skeleton also protect important organs such as the brain and heart...Bones articulate with each other by means of joints..These are supported by ligaments and moved by muscles that are attached to the bones by tendons..
There are 206 bones in the skeleton,providing a protective framework for the body..The skull,spine and rib cage protect vital body structures..The pelvis supports the abdominal organs and the bones and joints of the arms and legs enable the body to move..Twelve pairs of ribs form rib cage which protects vital organs in chest and moves with lungs during breathing...Spine which is formed from 33 bones(vertebrae) protects spinal cord and enables back to move..Pelvis is attached to lower part of spine and protects lower abdominal organs..

Jaw bone(Mandible) is hinged and enables mouth to open and close...Collar bones and shoulder blades form the shoulder girdle to which arms are attached..The upper arm is the humerus..The forearm bones are the ulna and radius..Hip joint is the point at which leg bones are connected to pelvis..The thigh bone is the femur...Knee cap is known as patella..The ankle bones are tarsals and the foot bones are metatarsals..The toe bones are phalanges..The heel bone is known as calcaneus..The wrist bones are carpals..The hand bones are metacarpals and the finger bones are phalanx..The lower leg bones are shin bone(tibia) and split bone(fibula)...

The spne or back bone has a number of functions..It supports the head,makes the upper body flexible,helps to support the body's weight and protects the spinal cord...The spine is a coulmn made up of 33 bones called vertebrae which are connected by joints..Between these are discs of fibrous tissue called intervertebral discs which help to make the spine flexible and cushion it from jolts...Muscles and ligaments attached to the vertebrae stabilise the spine and control the movements of the back..

The vertebrae form five groups..The cervical vertebrae support the head and neck..The thoracic vertebrae form an anchor for the ribs..The lumbar vertebrae help to support the body's weight and give stability...The sacrum supports the pelvis and the coccyx forms the end of the spine...

The skull is a bony structure that protects the brain and the top of the spinal cord..It also supports the eyes and other facial structures..The skull is made up of several bones most of which are fused at joints called sutures..Within the bone are air spaces called as sinusues which lighten the skull...The bones covering the brain form a dome called the cranium...Several other bones form the eye sockets,nose,cheeks and jaws..